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Introduction1

1. The Development of International Environmental Law2

2. The Concept of Sustainable Development5

3. The Role of Compensation in International Environmental Law7

4. Remarks about the Present Study9

Chapter 1 Preliminary Observations about the Relation between Environment and Legal Rules11

1. Introduction11

2. Property Rights and the Environment12

2.1. General Remarks12

2.2. The Relation between Property and Environment14

2.3. Environmental Protection and Liability Mechanisms Under National Law16

2.4. The Intrinsic Value of the Environment21

2.5. National Decisions Related to Environmental Damage23

3. The Environment as a Public Domain28

3.1. General Remarks28

3.2. The Public Trust Doctrine29

3.3. Public Regulations and Environmental Protection31

3.4. Environmental Policies and Interference in Private Property34

3.5. Interference in Private Property for Environmental Concerns：Overview of International Case Law36

4. The Protection of the Environment through Human Rights40

4.1. General Remarks40

4.2. The Right to Life and the Right to a Private Life in Cases of Pollution41

4.3. The Protection of Natural Resources Through the Rights of Indigenous People45

5. Environment and Constitutional Law49

6. Conclusions of the First Part52

Chapter 2 Environmental Protection and International Law55

1. Introduction55

2. Environmental Damages and International Responsibility58

2.1. General Remarks58

2.2. Environmental Damages in International Law59

2.3. Environmental Damages and Economic Losses Under International Responsibility65

2.4. Why the Reimbursement of Direct and Indirect Costs Does Not Remedy Environmental Damages？69

3. Conclusion of the Second Part75

Chapter 3 Overview of Compensation Standards in International Law77

1. Introduction77

2. International Jurisprudence78

2.1. General Remarks78

2.2. Early Arbitrations79

2.3. The Permanent Court of International Justice82

2.4. The International Court of Justice84

2.5. Other International Courts87

3. Liability Treaties88

3.1. General Remarks88

3.2. Pollution of the Sea90

3.3. Nuclear Activities92

3.4. Other Treaties96

4. Resolutions， Documents and Reports from International Organizations99

4.1. General Remarks99

4.2. Institut du Droit International100

4.3. International Law Commission101

4.4. United Nations Environmental Programme107

4.5. European Commission110

5. Conclusion of the Third Part114

Chapter 4 Elements of Fair Compensation in International Law115

1. Introduction115

2. Fairness and Satisfaction Among the Parties117

2.1. General Remarks117

2.2. Settlements by Lump Sum Agreements118

2.3. Settlements by Ex Gratia Payments122

3. Fairness as a Principle Governing the Establishment of Compensation125

3.1. General Remarks125

3.2. The Balance of Interests126

3.3. References to Equity， Proportionality and Reasonableness128

3.4. Equity and Inexistence of Applicable Law130

4. Economics and Fair Compensation132

4.1. General Remarks132

4.2. Compensation as An Incentive for Environmental Protection133

4.3. Compensation and ‘Efficient Liability’134

4.4. Difficulties on Presenting the Environment in Economic Theory135

4.5. Economic Valuation of the Environment138

4.6. The Contribution and the Limitations of Insurance in Relation to Environmental Risks141

5. A Punitive Approach to Fair Compensation145

5.1. General Remarks145

5.2. Punitive Awards and International Responsibility147

5.3. Punitive Awards and Environmental Claims150

6. Conclusion of the Fourth Part154

Chapter 5 Towards a Framework of Elements for the Compensation of Environmental Damages157

1. Introduction157

2. Consideration of the Instrumental Principles of International Environmental Law159

2.1. General Remarks159

2.2. The Principle of Prevention160

2.3. The Polluter Pays Principle162

2.4. The Precautionary Principle166

3. Incorporating Scientific Elements in International Decisions167

4. Respecting the Interests of the Third Parties171

4.1. General Remarks171

4.2. Commons： Areas of International Concern173

4.3. Compliance with Multilateral Environmental Agreements177

5. Evaluating the Conduct of the Parties182

5.1. General Remarks182

5.2. Contributory Fault and Environmental Damages183

5.3. Aggravated Damages and Deterrence185

6. Conclusion of the Fifth Part187

Conclusions189

Bibliography191

Index209