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1.1 The Study of Chemistry1

The Molecular Perspective of Chemistry1

1 Introduction: Matter and Measurement1

Why Study Chemistry?3

Chemistry at Work Chemistry and the Chemical Industry4

1.2 Classifications of Matter5

States of Matter5

Pure Substances and Mixtures6

Separation of Mixtures7

Elements9

Compounds10

Physical and Chemical Changes11

1.3 Properties of Matter11

1.4 Units of Measurement12

SI Units13

A Closer Look The Scientific Method13

Length and Mass14

Temperature15

Derived SI Units16

Volume16

Density17

Chemistry at Work Chemistry in the News18

1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement20

Precision and Accuracy20

Significant Figures21

Significant Figures in Calculations22

1.6 Dimensional Analysis24

Using Two or More Conversion Factors25

Conversions Involving Volume25

Summary of Dimensional Analysis26

Strategies in Chemistry The Importance of Practice27

Summary and Key Terms28

Exercises29

eMedia Exercises33

2.1 The Atomic Theory of Matter35

2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions35

2.2 The Discovery of Atomic Structure37

Cathode Rays and Electrons37

Radioactivity39

The Nuclear Atom39

2.3 The Modem View of Atomic Structure41

A Closer Look Basic Forces41

Isotopes, Atomic Numbers, and Mass Numbers43

2.4 The Periodic Table44

Molecules and Chemical Formulas47

2.5 Molecules and Molecular Compounds47

Picturing Molecules48

Molecular and Empirical Formulas48

2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds49

Predicting Ionic Charges50

Ionic Compounds51

Chemistry and Life Elements Required by Living Organisms53

2.7 Naming Inorganic Compounds54

Names. and Formulas of Ionic Compounds54

Strategies in Chemistry Pattern Recognition54

Names and Formulas of Acids58

Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds60

Summary and Key Terms60

Exercises61

eMedia Exercises65

3 Stoichiometry: Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations67

3.1 Chemical Equations68

3.2 Patterns of Chemical Reactivity70

Using the Periodic Table70

Combustion in Air71

Combination and Decomposition Reactions72

The Atomic Mass Scale74

3.3 Atomic and Molecular Weights74

Average Atomic Masses75

Formula and Molecular Weights76

Percentage Composition from Formulas76

3.4 The Mole77

A Closer Lood The Mass spectromter78

Molar Mass79

Strategies in Chemistry Problem Solving79

Interconverting Masses, Moles, and Numbers of Particles81

3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analyses83

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula84

Combustion Analysis85

3.6 Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations86

Chemistry at Work CO2 and the Greenhouse Effect90

3.7 Limiting Reactants91

Theoretical Yields93

Summary and Key Terms94

Exercises95

eMedia Exercises103

4 Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry105

4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions106

Electrolytic Properties106

Ionic Compounds in Water107

Strong and Weak Electrolytes108

Molecular Compounds in Water108

4.2 Precipitation Reactions109

Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds110

Exchange(Metathesis) Reactions111

Ionic Equations112

4.3 Acid-Base Reactions114

Acids114

Bases114

Strong and Weak Acids and Bases114

Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes115

Neutralization Reactions and Salts117

Acid-Base Reactions with Gas Formation119

Oxidation and Reduction120

Chemistry at Work Antacids120

4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions120

Oxidation Numbers121

Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts122

The Activity Series124

4.5 Concentrations of Solutions126

A Closer Look The Aura of Gold126

Molarity127

Strategies in Chemistry Analyzing Chemical Reactions127

Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte128

Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume129

Dilution130

4.6 Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis131

Titrations133

Summary and Key Terms136

Exercises137

eMedia Exercises143

5 Thermochemistry145

5.1 The Nature of Energy145

Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy146

Units of Energy147

System and Surroundings147

Transferring Energy: Work and Heat147

5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics149

Internal Energy149

Relating △E to Heat and Work150

Endothermic and Exothermic Processes151

State Functions152

5.3 Enthalpy153

A Closer Look Energy Ethalpy and P-V Work154

5.4 Enthalpies of Reaction155

5.5 Calorimetry158

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat158

Strategies in Chemistry Using Entgalpy as a Guide158

Constant-Pressure Calorimetry160

Bomb Calorimetry(Constant-Volume Calorimetry)161

Chemistry and Life The Regulation of Human Body Temperature162

5.6 Hess s Law164

5.7 Enthalpies of Formation166

Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction168

5.8 Foods and Fuels170

Foods170

Fuels172

Other Energy Sources173

Chemistry at Work Hydrogen as a fuel174

Summary and Key Terms176

Exercises177

eMedia Exercises185

6 Electronic Structure of Atoms187

6.1 The Wave Nature of Light187

6.2 Quantized Energy and Photons190

The Photoelectric Effect191

Chemistry and Life The Health Effects of Low-Frequency EMFs:A Current Scientific Controversy193

Line Spectra194

6.3 Bohr s Model of the Hydrogen Atom194

Bohr s Model195

6.4 The Wave Behavior of Matter198

The Uncertainty Principle199

A Closer Look Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle200

6.5 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic orbitais200

Orbitals and Quantum Numbers201

6.6 Representations of Orbitals203

The s Orbitals204

The p Orbitals205

The d and f Orbitals205

6.7 Orbitals in Many-Electron Atoms206

Effective Nuclear Charge206

Energies of Orbitals207

Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle208

6.8 Electron Configurations209

A Closer Look Experimental Evidence for Electron Spin209

Chemistry and Life Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging210

Periods 1, 2, and 3211

Period 4 and Beyond213

6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table214

Summary and Key Terms218

Exercises220

eMedia Exercises225

7 Periodic Pro erties of the Elements227

7.1 Development of the Periodic Table227

Electron Shells in Atoms229

7.2 Electron Shells and the Sizes of Atoms229

Atomic Sizes230

7.3 Ionization Energy233

Periodic Trends in Ionization Energies234

7.4 Electron Affinities236

7.5 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids238

Metals239

Nonmetals241

Metalloids243

Chemistry and Life The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs247

7.6 Group Trends for the Active Metals*243++Hydrogen248

Group 6A: The Oxygen Group248

Group 7A: The Halogens250

Chemistry and Life Thermophilic Bacteria251

Group 8A: The Noble Gases251

Summary and Key Terms253

Exercises254

eMedia Exercises259

8 Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding261

8.1 Chemical Bonds, Lewis Symbols, and the Octet Rule261

Lewis Symbols262

The Octet Rule263

8.2 Ionic Bonding263

Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation264

Electron Configuration of Ions of the Representative Elements266

A Closer Look Calculation of Lattice Energies: The Born-Haber Cycle267

Transition-Metal Ions268

8.3 Sizes of Ions269

Polyatomic Ions269

Lewis Structures271

Multiple Bonds272

8.5 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity273

Electronegativity273

Electronegativity and Bond Polarity274

Dipole Moments275

Bond Types and Nomenclature277

8.6 Drawing Lewis Structures278

Formal Charge280

A Closer Look Oxidation Numbers formal Charges and Partial Charges282

8.7 Resonance Structures283

Resonance in Benzene284

8.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule285

Odd Number of Electrons285

Less than an Octet285

More than an Octet286

8.9 Strengths of Covalent Bonds288

Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions289

Bond Enthalpy and Bond Length291

Chemistry at Work Explosives and Afred Nobel292

Summary and Key Terms294

Exercises295

eMedia Exercises301

9 Molecular Geometry and BondingTheories303

9.1 Molecular Shapes304

9.2 TheVSEPR Model304

The Effect of Nonbonding Electrons and Multiple Bonds on Bond Angles310

Molecules with Expanded Valence Shells311

Molecules with More than One Central Atom313

9.3 Polarity of Polyatomic Molecules315

9.4 Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap317

sp Hybrid Orbitals318

9.5 Hybrid Orbitals318

sp2 and sp3 Hybrid Orbitals320

Hybridization Involving d Orbitals322

Summary322

9.6 Multiple Bonds324

Delocalized л Bonding327

Chemistry and Life The Chemistry of Vision328

General Conclusions330

9.7 Molecular Orbitals331

The Hydrogen Molecule331

Bond Order333

9.8 Second-Row Diatomic Molecules334

Molecular Orbitals for Li2 and Be2334

Molecular Orbitals from 2p Atomic Orbitals335

Electron Configurations for B2 Through Ne2336

Electron Configurations and Molecular Properties338

Chemistry at Work Organic Dyes342

Summary and Key Terms343

Exercises344

eMedia Exercises351

10 Gases353

10.1 Characteristics of Gases353

10.2 Pressure354

Atmospheric Pressure and the Barometer355

Pressures of Enclosed Gases and Manometers356

10.3 The Gas Laws358

The Pressure-Volume Relationship: Boyle s Law358

Chemistry and Life Blood Pressure358

The Temperature-Volume Relationship: Charles s Law360

The Quantity-Volume Relationship:Avogadro s Law361

10.4 The Ideal-Gas Equation362

Strategies in Chemistry Calculations Involving Many Variables364

Relating the Ideal-Gas Equation and the Gas Laws365

Gas Densities and Molar Mass367

10.5 Further Applications of the Ideal-Gas Equation367

Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions368

10.6 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures369

Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions370

Collecting Gases over Water371

10.7 Kinetic-Molecular Theory373

Application to the Gas Laws374

A Closer Look The Ideal-Gas Equation375

10.8 Molecular Effusion and Diffusion376

Graham s Law of Effusion377

Diffusion and Mean Free Path378

Chemistry at Work Gas Separations379

10.9 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior379

The van der Waals Equation381

Summary and Key Terms383

Exercises384

eMedia Exercises391

11 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids393

11.1 A Molecular Comparison of Liquids and Solids393

11.2 Intermolecular Forces395

Ion-Dipole Forces396

Dipole-Dipole Forces396

London Dispersion Forces397

Hydrogen Bonding399

A Closer Look Trends in Hydrogen Bonding400

Comparing Intermolecular Forces402

Viscosity404

Surface Tension404

11.3 Some Properties of Liquids404

11.4 Phase Changes405

Energy Changes Accompanying Phase Changes406

Heating Curves406

Critical Temperature and Pressure408

Chemistry at Work Supercritical Fluid Extraction409

11.5 Vapor Pressure409

Volatility, Vapor Pressure, and Temperature410

Explaining Vapor Pressure on the Molecular Level410

Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point411

11.6 Phase Diagrams412

A Closer Look The Clausius-Clapeyron Equation412

The Phase Diagrams of H20 and CO2413

11.7 Structures of Solids414

Unit Cells416

The Crystal Structure of Sodium Chloride417

Close Packing of Spheres419

A Closer Look X-ray Diffraction by Crystals420

11.8 Bonding in Solids421

Molecular Solids421

Covalent-Network Solids422

Ionic Solids423

A Closer Look Buckyball424

Metallic Solids425

Summary and Key Terms426

Exercises427

eMedia Exercises433

12 Modern Materials435

12.1 Liquid Crystals436

Types of Liquid-Crystalline Phases437

12.2 Polymers440

Addition Polymerization441

Chemistry at Work Liquid Crystal Displays441

Condensation Polymerization442

Chemistry at Work Recycling Plastics444

Types of Polymers444

Structures and Physical Properties of Polymers444

Cross-linking Polymers446

Chemistry at Work KevlarTM an Advanced Material447

12.3 Biomaterials449

Characteristics of Biomaterials449

Polymeric Biomaterials450

Examples of Biomaterial Applications451

12.4 Ceramics454

Processing of Ceramics455

Ceramic Composites456

Applications of Ceramics456

Superconducting Ceramics457

12.5 Thin Films459

Uses of Thin Films459

Formation of Thin Films460

Chemistry at Work Diamond Coatings462

Summary and Key Terms462

Exercises463

eMedia Exercises467

13 properties of Solutions469

13.1 The Solution Process469

Energy Changes and Solution Formation471

Solution Formation,Spontaneity, and Disorder472

Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions473

13.2 Saturated Solutions and Solubility474

A Closer Look Hydrates474

13.3 Factors Affecting Solubility476

Solute-Solvent Interactions476

Chemistry and Life Fat-and Water-Soluble Vitamins478

Pressure Effects479

Temperature Effects480

Chemistry and Life Blood Gases and Deep-Sea Diving481

13.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration482

Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb482

Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality483

Conversion of Concentration Units485

13.5 Colligative Properties486

Lowering the Vapor Pressure487

A Closer Look Ideal Solutions with Two or More Volatile Components488

Boiling-Point Elevation489

Freezing-Point Depression490

Osmosis492

Determination of Molar Mass493

A Closer Look Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions494

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids496

13.6 Colloids496

Chemistry and Life Sickle-Cell Anemia498

Removal of Colloidal Particles499

Summary and Key Terms500

Exercises501

eMedia Exercises507

14 Chemical Kinetics509

14.1 Reaction Rates510

Rates in Terms of Concentrations512

Reaction Rates and Stoichiometry514

14.2 The Dependence of Rate on Concentration515

Reaction Order517

Units of Rate Constants517

Using Initial Rates to Determine Rate Laws518

14.3 The Change of Concentration with Time519

First-Order Reactions520

Half-life521

Second-Order Reactions523

Chemistry at Work Methyl Brornide in the Atmosphere524

14.4 Temperature and Rate525

The Collision Model526

Activation Energy527

The Orientation Factor529

The Arrhenius Equation529

14.5 Reaction Mechanisms532

Elementary Steps532

Multistep Mechanisms533

Rate Laws of Elementary Steps534

Rate Laws of Multistep Mechanisms535

Mechanisms with an Initial Fast Step537

14.6 Catalysis539

Homogeneous Catalysis539

Heterogeneous Catalysis540

Chemistry at Work Catalytic Converters542

Enzymes543

Chemistry and Life Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase545

Summary and Key Terms548

Exercises549

eMedia Exercises557

15 Chemical Equilibrium559

15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium560

Chemistry at Work The Haber Process562

15.2 The Equilibrium Constant562

Equilibrium Constants in Terms of Pressure566

The Magnitude of Equilibrium Constants567

The Direction of the Chemical Equation and K567

15.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria568

15.4 Calculating Equilibrium Constants570

15.5 Applications of Equilibrium Constants572

Predicting the Direction of Reaction573

Calculation of Equilibrium Concentrations574

15.6 Le Chatelier s Principle576

Change in Reactant or Product Concentrations576

Effects of Volume and Pressure Changes577

Effect of Temperature Changes579

The Effect of Catalysts582

Summary and Key Terms584

Chemistry at Work Controlling Nitric Oxide Emissions584

Exercises585

eMedia Exercises591

16.1 Acids and Bases: A Brief Review593

16 Acid-Base Equilibria593

16.2 Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases594

The H+ Ion in Water594

Proton-Transfer Reactions595

Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs596

Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases597

16.3 The Autoionization of Water599

The Ion Product of Water599

16.4 The pH Scale601

Other p Scales603

Measuring pH604

Strong Bases605

Strong Acids605

16.5 Strong Acids and Bases605

16.6 Weak Acids606

Calculating Ka from pH607

Using Ka to Calculate pH609

Polyprotic Acids613

16.7 Weak Bases615

Types of Weak Bases617

16.8 Relationship Between Ka and Kb618

Chemistry at Work Arnines and Arnine Hydrochlorides619

16.9 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions621

16.10 Acid-Base Behavior and Chemical Structure623

Oxyacids624

Binary Acids624

Factors That Affect Acid Strength624

Carboxylic Acids627

16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases627

Chemistry and Life The Arnphoteric Behavior of Arnino Acids628

Hydrolysis of Metal Ions629

Summary and Key Terms632

Exercises633

eMedia Exercises639

17 Additional Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria641

17.1 The Common-Ion Effect641

17.2 Buffered Solutions644

Composition and Action of Buffered Solutions644

Buffer Capacity and pH646

Addition of Strong Acids or Bases to Buffers648

17.3 Acid-Base Titrations650

Chemistry and Life Blood as a Buffered Solution651

Strong Acid-Strong Base Titrations652

Weak Acid-Strong Base Titrations655

Titrations of Polyprotic Acids659

17.4 Solubility Equilibria659

The Solubility-Product Constant, KSP660

Solubility and KSp661

17.5 Factors That Affect Solubility662

Common-lon Effect663

A Closer Look Limitations of Solubility Products663

Solubility and pH665

Formation of Complex Ions666

Chemistry and Life Tooth Decay and Fluoridation666

Amphoterism668

17.6 Precipitation and Separation of Ions669

Selective Precipitation of Ions670

17.7 Qualitative Analysis for Metallic Elements671

Summary and Key Terms675

Exercises675

eMedia Exercises681

18 Chemistry of the Environment683

18.1 Earth s Atmosphere683

Composition of the Atmosphere685

Photodissociation686

18.2 The Outer Regions of the Atmosphere686

Photoionization687

18.3 Ozone in the Upper Atmosphere688

Depletion of the Ozone Layer690

18.4 Chemistry of the Troposphere691

A Closer Look Stratospheric Clouds and Ozone Depletion692

Sulfur Compounds and Acid Rain693

Carbon Monoxide694

Nitrogen Oxides and Photochemical Smog696

Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, and Climate697

18.5 The World Ocean699

Seawater699

Desalination700

18.6 Freshwater701

Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality702

Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies703

A Closer Look Water Softening703

Summary and KeyTerms705

Exercises706

eMedia Exercises710

19 Chemical Thermodynamics713

19.1 Spontaneous Processes714

Reversible and Irreversible Processes716

19.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics717

The Spontaneous Expansion of a Gas718

Entropy719

The Second Law of Thermodynamics722

Chemistry and Life Entropy and Life724

19.3 The Molecular Interpretation of Entropy724

A Closer Look Entropy Disorder and Ludwig Boltzmann726

19.4 Calculation of Entropy Changes729

19.5 Gibbs Free Energy730

Standard Free-Energy Changes731

A Closer Look What s Free About Free Energy?732

19.6 Free Energy and Temperature734

19.7 Free Energy and the Equilibrium Constant737

Chemistry and Life Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions739

Summary and Key Terms741

Exercises742

eMedia Exercises749

20 Electrochemistry751

20.1 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions752

20.2 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations753

Half-Reactions754

Balancing Equations by the Method of Half-Reactions754

Balancing Equations for Reactions Occurring in Basic Solution757

20.3 Voltaic Cells758

A Molecular View of Electrode Processes761

20.4 Cell EMF762

Standard Reduction Potentials764

Oxidizing and Reducing Agents768

20.5 Spontaneity of Redox Reactions770

EMF and Free-Energy Change771

20.6 Effect of Concentration on Cell EMF773

The Nernst Equation773

Concentration Cells775

Cell EMF and Chemical Equilibrium777

Chemistry and Life Heartbeats and Electrocardiography778

20.7 Batteries779

Lead-Acid Battery780

Alkaline Battery781

Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal-Hydride, and Lithium-lon Batteries781

20.8 Corrosion782

Fuel Cells782

Preventing the Corrosion of Iron783

Corrosion of Iron783

20.9 Electrolysis785

Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions786

Electrolysis with Active Electrodes788

Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis789

Electrical Work791

Summary and Key Terms793

Exercises794

eMedia Exercises803

21.1 Radioactivity805

21 Nuclear Chemistry805

Nuclear Equations806

Types of Radioactive Decay807

21.2 Patterns of Nuclear Stability809

Neutron-to-Proton Ratio809

Radioactive Series811

further Observations812

21.3 Nuclear Transmutations812

Using Charged Particles813

Using Neutrons814

Transuranium Elements814

21.4 Rates of Radioactive Decay815

Dating816

Calculations Based on Half-life817

21.5 Detection of Radioactivity819

Radiotracers820

21.6 Energy Changes in Nuclear Reactions820

Chemistry and Life Medical Applications of RadJotracers821

Nuclear Binding Energies822

21.7 Nuclear Fission824

A Closer Look The Dawning of the Nuclear Age826

Nuclear Reactors826

21.8 Nuclear Fusion828

21.9 Biological Effects of Radiation829

Radiation Doses830

Radon831

Chemistry and Life Radiation Therapy832

Summary and Key Terms834

Exercises835

eMedia Exercises839

22 Chemistry of the Nonmetals841

22.1 General Concepts: Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactions841

Chemical Reactions843

22.2 Hydrogen844

Isotopes of Hydrogen845

Properties of Hydrogen845

Preparation of Hydrogen846

Binary Hydrogen Compounds847

Uses of Hydrogen847

22.3 Group 8A:The Noble Gases848

Noble-Gas Compounds849

22.4 Group 7A: The Halogens850

Properties and Preparation of the Halogens851

Uses of the Halogens852

The Hydrogen Halides853

Interhalogen Compounds854

Oxyacids and Oxyanions855

22.5 Oxygen856

Properties of Oxygen856

Preparation of Oxygen856

Ozone857

Uses of Oxygen857

Oxides858

Peroxides and Superoxides859

22.6 The Other Group 6A Elements: S, Se, Te, and Po860

General Characteristics of the Group 6A Elements860

Occurrences and Preparation of S, Se, and Te861

Properties and Uses of Sulfur, Selenium, and Tellurium862

Sulfides863

Oxides, Oxyacids, and Oxyanions of Sulfur863

22.7 Nitrogen865

Properties of Nitrogen865

Preparation and Uses of Nitrogen866

Hydrogen Compounds of Nitrogen867

Oxides and Oxyacids of Nitrogen868

22.8 The Other Group 5A Elements: P, As, Sb, and Bi870

General Characteristics of the Group 5A Elements870

Chemistry and Life Nitrites in Food870

Occurrence, Isolation, and Properties of Phosphorus871

Phosphorus Halides872

Oxy Compounds of Phosphorus872

22.9 Carbon875

Elemental Forms of Carbon876

Oxides of Carbon876

Chemistry at Work Carbon Fibers and Composites877

Carbonic Acid and Carbonates879

Carbides880

Other Inorganic Compounds of Carbon880

22.10 The Other Group 4A Elements: Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb881

General Characteristics of the Group 4A Elements881

Occurrence and Preparation of Silicon882

Silicates882

Glass884

Silicones885

22.11 Boron885

Summary and Key Terms887

Exercises889

eMedia Exercises894

23.1 Occurrence and Distribution of Metals897

23 Metals and Metallurgy897

Minerals898

Metallurgy899

23.2 Pyrometallurgy900

The Pyrometallurgy of Iron901

Formation of Steel902

23.3 Hydrometallurgy903

The Hydrometallurgy of Aluminum904

23.4 Electrometallurgy904

Electrometallurgy of Sodium905

Electrometallurgy of Aluminum905

Electrorefining of Copper906

A Closer Look Charles M. Hall907

Physical Properties of Metals908

23.5 Metallic Bonding908

Electron-Sea Model for Metallic Bonding909

Molecular-Orbital Model for Metals910

A Closer Look Insulators and Semiconductors911

23.6 Alloys912

Intermetallic Compounds914

23.7 Transition Metals914

A Closer Look Shape Memory Alloys915

Physical Properties916

Electron Configurations and Oxidation States917

Magnetism919

Chromium920

Iron920

23.8 Chemistry of Selected Transition Metals920

Copper921

Summary and Key Terms922

Exercises923

eMedia Exercises927

24 Chemistry of Coordination Compounds929

24.1 The Structure of Complexes929

Charges, Coordination Numbers, and Geometries931

24.2 Chelates933

Metals and Chelates in Living Systems934

Nomenclature936

A Closer Look The Stability of Chelates937

Chemistry and Life The Battle for Iron in Living Systems938

24.3 Isomerism940

Structural Isomerism941

Stereoisomerism941

24.4 Color and Magnetism944

Color944

Magnetism946

24.5 Crystal-Field Theory946

A Closer Look Gemstones948

Electron Configurations in Octahedral Complexes951

Tetrahedral and Square-Planar Complexes952

Summary and Key Terms954

Exercises955

eMedia Exercises959

25 The Chemistry of Life: Organic and Biological Chemist961

Solubility and Acid-Base Properties of Organic Substances962

The Stabilities of Organic Substances962

The Shapes of Organic Molecules962

25.1 A Look Back962

25.2 Introduction to Hydrocarbons963

25.3 Alkanes964

Structures of Alkanes965

Structural Isomers966

Nomenclature of Alkanes966

Cycloalkanes969

Reactions of Alkanes969

Chemistry at Work Gasoline970

AIkenes971

25.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons971

Alkynes973

Addition Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes974

Chemistry at Work The Accidental Discovery of TeflonTM975

Mechanism of Addition Reactions976

Aromatic Hydrocarbons977

A Closer Look Aromatic Stabilization978

25.5 Functional Groups; Alcohols and Ethers979

Alcohols (R—OH)979

25.6 Compounds with a Carbonyl Group982

Aldehydes982

Ethers(R—O—R )982

Carboxylic Acids983

Esters985

Amines and Amides986

25.7 Chirality in Organic Chemistry987

25.8 Introduction to Biochemistry989

25.9 Proteins989

Amino Acids990

Chemistry and Life The Origins of Chirality in Living Systems991

Polypeptides and Proteins991

Protein Structure993

25.10 Carbohydrates995

Disaccharides996

Polysaccharides997

25.11 Nucleic Acids999

Strategies in Chemistry What Now?1001

Summary and Key Terms1003

Exercises1005

eMedia Exercises1011

Appendices1012

A Mathematical Operations1012

B Properties of Water1018

C Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 298.15K(25℃)1019

D Aqueous-Equilibrium Constants1022

E Standard Reduction Potentials at 25℃1024