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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS1

1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy2

Application Areas of Thermodynamics3

1-2 Importance of Dimensions and Units3

Some Sl and English Units6

Dimensional Homogeneity8

Unity Conversion Ratios9

1-3 Systems and Control Volumes10

1-4 Properties of a System12

Continuum12

1-5 Density and Specific Gravity13

1-6 State and Equilibrium14

The State Postulate15

1-7 Processes and Cycles15

The Steady-Flow Process16

1-8 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics17

Temperature Scales18

The International Temperature Scale of 1990（ITS-90）20

1-9 Pressure22

Variation of Pressure with Depth24

1-10 Pressure Measurement Devices27

The Barometer27

The Manometer30

Other Pressure Measurement Devices33

1-11 Problem-Solving Technique34

Step 1：Problem Statement34

Step 2：Schematic35

Step 3：Assumptions and Approximations35

Step 4：Physical Laws35

Step 5：Properties35

Step 6：Calculations35

Step 7：Reasoning，Verification，and Discussion35

Engineering Software Packages36

Engineering Equation Solver（EES）37

A Remark on Significant Digits39

Summary40

References and Suggested Readings41

Problems41

CHAPTER TWO ENERGY，ENERGY TRANSFER，AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS51

2-1 Introduction52

2-2 Forms of Energy53

Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy55

More on Nuclear Energy56

Mechanical Energy58

2-3 Energy Transfer by Heat60

Historical Background on Heat61

2-4Energy Transfer by Work62

Electrical Work65

2-5 Mechanical Forms of Work66

Shaft Work66

Spring Work67

Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars67

Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film68

Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body68

Nonmechanical Forms of Work70

2-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics70

Energy Balance72

Energy Change of a System，ΔEsystem72

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer，En and Eout73

2-7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies78

Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices82

2-8 Energy and Environment85

Ozone and Smog86

Acid Rain87

The Greenhouse Effect：Global Warming and Climate Change88

Topic of Special Interest：Mechanisms of Heat Transfer91

Summary96

References and Suggested Readings97

Problems97

CHAPTER THREE PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES111

3-1 Pure Substance112

3-2 Phases of a Pure Substance112

3-3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances113

Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid114

Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor114

Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure115

Some Consequences of Tat and Psat Dependence116

3-4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change Processes118

1 The T-v Diagram118

2 The P-v Diagram120

Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase120

3 The P-T Diagram122

The P-v-T Surface123

3-5 Property Tables124

Enthalpy—A Combination Property124

1a Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States125

1b Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture127

2 Superheated Vapor130

3 Compressed Liquid131

Reference State and Reference Values132

3-6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State134

Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas？137

3-7 Compressibility Factor—A Measure of Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior138

3-8 Other Equations of State141

van der Waals Equation of State142

Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State142

Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State143

Virial Equation of State144

Topic of Special Interest：Vapor Pressure and Phase Equilibrium146

Summary150

References and Suggested Readings151

Problems151

CHAPTER FOUR ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED SYSTEMS163

4-1 Moving Boundary Work164

Polytropic Process168

4-2 Energy Balance for Closed Systems169

4-3 Specific Heats174

4-4 Internal Energy，Enthalpy，and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases176

Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases178

4-5 Internal Energy，Enthalpy，and Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids183

Internal Energy Changes184

Enthalpy Changes184

Topic of Special Interest：Thermodynamic Aspects of Biological Systems187

Summary195

References and Suggested Readings195

Problems196

CHAPTER FIVE MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CONTROL VOLUMES213

5-1 Conservation of Mass214

Mass and Volume Flow Rates214

Conservation of Mass Principle216

Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes218

Special Case：Incompressible Flow219

5-2 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid221

Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid222

Energy Transport by Mass223

5-3 Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems225

5-4 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices228

1 Nozzles and Diffusers229

2 Turbines and Compressors232

3 Throttling Valves234

4a Mixing Chambers236

4b Heat Exchangers238

5 Pipe and Duct Flow240

5-5 Energy Analysis of Unsteady-Flow Processes242

Topic of Special Interest：General Energy Equation247

Summary251

References and Suggested Readings252

Problems252

CHAPTER SIX THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS275

6-1 Introduction to the Second Law276

6-2 Thermal Energy Reservoirs277

6-3 Heat Engines278

Thermal Efficiency279

Can We Save Qout？281

The Second Law of Thermodynamics：Kelvin-Planck Statement283

6-4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps283

Coefficient of Performance284

Heat Pumps285

Performance of Refrigerators，Air-Conditioners，and Heat Pumps286

The Second Law of Thermodynamics：Clausius Statement288

Equivalence of the Two Statements289

6-5 Perpetual-Motion Machines290

6-6 Reversible and Irreversible Processes292

Irreversibilities293

Internally and Externally Reversible Processes294

6-7 The Carnot Cycle295

The Reversed Carnot Cycle297

6-8 The Carnot Principles297

6-9 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale299

6-10 The Carnot Heat Engine301

The Quality of Energy302

Quantity versus Quality in Daily Life303

6-11 The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump304

Topic of Special Interest：Household Refrigerators307

Summary311

References and Suggested Readings312

Problems312

CHAPTER SEVEN ENTROPY329

7-1 Entropy330

A Special Case：Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes333

7-2 The Increase of Entropy Principle334

Some Remarks about Entropy336

7-3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances337

7-4 Isentropic Processes340

7-5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy342

7-6 What Is Entropy？343

Entropy and Entropy Generation in Daily Life346

7-7 The T ds Relations347

7-8 Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids349

7-9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases352

Constant Specific Heats（Approximate Analysis）353

Variable Specific Heats（Exact Analysis）353

Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases355

Constant Specific Heats（Approximate Analysis）355

Variable Specific Heats（Exact Analysis）356

Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume356

7-10 Reversible Steady-Flow Work359

Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume the Least Work When the Process is Reversible362

7-11 Minimizing the Compressor Work363

Multistage Compression with Intercooling364

7-12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices367

Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines367

Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps369

Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles371

7-13 Entropy Balance373

Entropy Change of a System，ΔSsvstem374

Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer，Sin and Sout374

1 Heat Transfer374

2 Mass Flow375

Entropy Generation，Sen376

Closed Systems377

Control Volumes378

Entropy Generation Associated with a Heat Transfer Process385

Topic of Special Interest：Reducing the Cost of Compressed Air386

Summary395

References and Suggested Readings396

Problems397

CHAPTER EIGHT EXERGY421

8-1 Exergy：Work Potential of Energy422

Exergy（Work Potential） Associated with Kinetic and Potential Energy423

8-2 Reversible Work and Irreversibility425

8-3 Second-Law Efficiency430

8-4 Exergy Change of a System433

Exergy of a Fixed Mass：Nonflow（or Closed System） Exergy433

Exergy of a Flow Stream：Flow（or Stream）Exergy436

8-5 Exergy Transfer by Heat，Work，And Mass438

Exergy by Heat Transfer，Q439

Exergy Transfer by Work，W440

Exergy Transfer by Mass，m440

8-6 The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction441

Exergy Destruction442

8-7 Exergy Balance：Closed Systems443

8-8 Exergy Balance：Control Volumes454

Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems455

Reversible Work456

Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices456

Topic of Special Interest：Second-Law Aspects of Daily Life463

Summary467

References and Suggested Readings468

Problems468

CHAPTER NINE GAS POWER CYCLES485

9-1 Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles486

9-2 The Carnot Cycle and its Value in Engineering488

9-3 Air-Standard Assumptions490

9-4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines490

9-5 Otto Cycle：The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines492

9-6 Diesel Cycle：The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines499

9-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles502

9-8 Brayton Cycle：The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines506

Development of Gas Turbines509

Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones512

9-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration513

9-10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling，Reheating，and Regeneration516

9-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles520

Modifications to Turbojet Engines524

9-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles526

Topic of Special Interest：Saving Fuel and Money by Driving Sensibly530

Summary536

References and Suggested Readings538

Problems538

CHAPTER TEN VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER CYCLES553

10-1 The Carnot Vapor Cycle554

10-2 Rankine Cycle：The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles555

Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle555

10-3 Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized Ones558

10-4 How Can We Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle？561

Lowering the Condenser Pressure（Lowers Tlow，avg）561

Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures（Increases T high，avg）562

Increasing the Boiler Pressure（Increases T high avg）562

10-5 The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle565

10-6 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle569

Open Feedwater Heaters569

Closed Feedwater Heaters571

10-7 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor Power Cycles577

10-8 Cogeneration579

10-9 Combined Gas-Vapor Power Cycles584

Topic of Special Interest：Binary Vapor Cycles587

Summary589

References and Suggested Readings590

Problems590

CHAPTER ELEVEN REFRIGERATION CYCLES607

11-1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps608

11-2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle609

11-3 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle610

11-4 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle613

11-5 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle615

11-6 Selecting the Right Refrigerant620

11-7 Heat Pump Systems622

11-8 Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems623

Cascade Refrigeration Systems624

Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems626

Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single Compressor628

Liquefaction of Gases629

11-9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles630

11-10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems633

Topic of Special Interest：Thermoelectric Power Generation and Refrigeration Systems636

Summary638

References and Suggested Readings639

Problems639

CHAPTER TWELVE THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY RELATIONS655

12-1 A Little Math—Partial Derivatives and Associated Relations656

Partial Differentials657

Partial Differential Relations659

12-2 The Maxwell Relations661

12-3 The Clapeyron Equation662

12-4 General Relations For du，dh，ds，cv，and c p665

Internal Energy Changes666

Enthalpy Changes666

Entropy Changes667

Specific Heats cv and c p668

12-5 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient672

12-6 The Δh，Δu，and Δs of Real Gases674

Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases674

Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases675

Entropy Changes of Real Gases676

Summary679

References and Suggested Readings680

Problems680

CHAPTER THIRTEEN GAS MIXTURES687

13-1 Composition of a Gas Mixture：Mass and Mole Fractions688

13-2 P-v-T Behavior of Gas Mixtures：Ideal and Real Gases690

Ideal-Gas Mixtures691

Real-Gas Mixtures692

13-3 Properties of Gas Mixtures：Ideal and Real Gases695

Ideal-Gas Mixtures696

Real-Gas Mixtures700

Topic of Special Interest：Chemical Potential and the Separation Work of Mixtures704

Summary714

References and Suggested Readings715

Problems716

CHAPTER FOURTEEN GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES AND AIR-CONDITIONING725

14-1 Dry and Atmospheric Air726

14-2 Specific and Relative Humidity of Air727

14-3 Dew-Point Temperature729

14-4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures731

14-5 The Psychrometric Chart734

14-6 Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning735

14-7 Air-Conditioning Processes737

Simple Heating and Cooling（ω = constant）738

Heating with Humidification739

Cooling with Dehumidification740

Evaporative Cooling742

Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams743

Wet Cooling Towers745

Summary747

References and Suggested Readings748

Problems749

CHAPTER FIFTEEN CHEMICAL REACTIONS759

15-1 Fuels and Combustion760

15-2 Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes764

15-3 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of Combustion771

15-4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems774

Steady-Flow Systems775

Closed Systems776

15-5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature780

15-6 Entropy Change of Reacting Systems782

15-7 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems784

Topic of Special Interest：Fuel Cells790

Summary792

References and Suggested Readings793

Problems793

CHAPTER SIXTEEN CHEMICAL AND PHASE EQUILIBRIUM805

16-1 Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium806

16-2 The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas Mixtures808

16-3 Some Remarks about the Kp of Ideal-Gas Mixtures812

16-4 Chemical Equilibrium for Simultaneous Reactions816

16-5 Variation of Kp with Temperature818

16-6 Phase Equilibrium820

Phase Equilibrium for a Single-Component System820

The Phase Rule822

Phase Equilibrium for a Multicomponent System822

Summary828

References and Suggested Readings829

Problems829

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN COMPRESSIBLE FLOW839

17-1 Stagnation Properties840

17-2 Speed of Sound and Mach Number843

17-3 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow845

Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area847

Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases849

17-4 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles851

Converging Nozzles852

Converging-Diverging Nozzles856

17-5 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves860

Normal Shocks860

Oblique Shocks866

Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves870

17-6 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction（Rayleigh Flow）875

Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow881

Choked Rayleigh Flow882

17-7 Steam Nozzles884

Summary887

References and Suggested Readings888

Problems889

APPENDIX PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS897

Table A-1 Molar mass，gas constant，and critical-point properties898

Table A-2 Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases899

Table A-3 Properties of common liquids，solids，and foods902

Table A-4 Saturated water—Temperature table904

Table A-5 Saturated water—Pressure table906

Table A-6 Superheated water908

Table A-7 Compressed liquid water912

Table A-8 Saturated ice-water vapor913

Figure A-9 T-s diagram for water914

Figure A-10 Mollier diagram for water915

Table A-11 Saturated refrigerant-134a—Temperature table916

Table A-12 Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure table918

Table A-13 Superheated refrigerant-134a919

Figure A-14 P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a921

Figure A-15 Nelson-Obert generalized compressibility chart922

Table A-16 Properties of the atmosphere at high altitude923

Table A-17 Ideal-gas properties of air924

Table A-18 Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen，N2926

Table A-19 Ideal-gas properties of oxygen，O2928

Table A-20 Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide，CO2930

Table A-21 Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide，CO932

Table A-22 Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen，H2934

Table A-23 Ideal-gas properties of water vapor，H2O935

Table A-24 Ideal-gas properties of monatomic oxygen，O937

Table A-25 Ideal-gas properties of hydroxyl，OH937

Table A-26 Enthalpy of formation，Gibbs function of formation，and absolute entropy at 25℃，1 atm938

Table A-27 Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons939

Table A-28 Natural logarithms of the equilibrium constant Kp940

Figure A-29 Generalized enthalpy departure chart941

Figure A-30 Generalized entropy departure chart942

Figure A-31 Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure943

Table A-32 One-dimensional isentropic compressible-flow functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4944

Table A-33 One-dimensional normal-shock functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4945

Table A-34 Rayleigh flow functions for an ideal gas with k = 1.4946

INDEX947