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Introduction1

1 The development of a judicialised international trade dispute resolution system at the World Trade Organisation11

1.1 Introduction11

1.2 Definition of judicialisation12

1.2.1 Quasi-judicial？13

1.2.2 International Law dispute resolution models15

1.2.3 Tomuschat taxonomy of an international judicial body16

1.3 Background to the GATT dispute resolution procedures17

1.4 The development of the GATT/WTO dispute settlement procedures18

1.5 The central tenet of the GATT system20

1.6 Practical implementation of the GATT dispute settlement process21

1.7 Understanding regarding notification， consultation， dispute settlement and surveillance21

1.8 Drawhacks of the GATT dispute settlement process23

1.9 The WTO and the Dispute Settlement Understanding26

1.9.1 The Dispute Settlement Body26

1.9.2 The panel27

1.9.3 The Appellate Body28

1.9.4 Negative consensus29

1.9.5 Enforcement29

1.10 Judicialised dispute resolution at the WTO31

1.11 An arbitration or judicial system at the WTO？34

1.12 Effectiveness of the WTO DSU36

1.13 A study of the effectiveness of the WTO DSU40

1.14 Conclusion41

2 The WTO dispute resolution mechanism in comparison to other international regimes43

2.1 The context of the WTO DSU in international dispute resolution organisations43

2.2 The WTO DSU in the context of the International Court ofJustice43

2.3 The WTO DSU in the context of the European Court ofJustice46

2.4 The WTO DSU， the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa49

2.4.1 The 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement51

2.4.2 The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa Court of Justice54

2.5 The WTO DSU in the context of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and the Convention on Biological Diversity56

2.5.1 The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species57

2.5.2 The Convention on Biological Diversity60

2.6 Conclusion61

3 The role of previous decisions in the WTO DSU and their impact on member state behaviour63

3.1 Introduction63

3.2 International law and reliance on dispute resolution decisions65

3.3 Judicial decision making in the jurisprudence of the ICJ68

3.4 Stare decisis and the International Court ofJustice71

3.5 Distinguishing a case at the International Court ofJustice75

3.6 Departing from a previous decision at the International Court ofJustice77

3.7 Summary of precedent in international law and the International Court ofJustice83

3.8 Precedent under the GATT 194784

3.9 The judicialised WTO dispute resolution system and the role of precedent88

3.10 Arguments against the existence of precedent in the WTO92

3.11 Conclusion93

4 Trade and environment in the international legal order95

4.1 Introduction95

4.2 Context of trade and environment in the international law arena96

4.3 Free market economics and the environment98

4.4 The environmental view of the trade—environment debate104

4.5 The environmental law context113

4.5.1 The Convention on Biological Diversity114

4.5.2 The Kyoto Protocol on climate change117

4.5.3 The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety （CPB）121

4.6 Conclusion126

5 The DSB and MEAs129

5.1 Introduction129

5.2 Choosing a forum for dispute settlement132

5.3 Dispute resolution mechanisms of Multilateral Environmental Agreements136

5.3.1 CITES136

5.3.2 The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer138

5.3.3 The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposals141

5.4 The Doha agenda and the MEA/WTO relationship144

5.5 Commentaries on the WTO and its interaction with MEAs148

5.6 Conclusion151

6 Environment under the WTO and the CTE153

6.1 Introduction153

6.2 The environment under the WTO154

6.2.1 The historical context156

6.3 The WTO CTE terms of reference160

6.3.1 The ten areas of work of the CTE162

6.4 The Doha Development Agenda and the work of the Committee on Trade and Environment164

6.5 Other areas of work of the CTE170

6.5.1 TRIPS and the Committee on Trade and the Environment171

6.5.2 Environmental labelling and the CTE173

6.5.3 CTE work in relation to Article ⅩⅩ GATT175

6.6 Impact of the CTE on the trade and environment debate176

6.7 Conclusion179

7 Application of Article ⅩⅩ in the trade—environment context181

7.1 Introduction181

7.2 Treaty rules of relevance to the trade—environment debate182

7.2.1 The environment in other WTO agreements184

7.2.2 The precautionary principle in the WTO agreements191

7.3 Article xx and ‘like’ products192

7.4 The operation of the dispute resolution system and environmental measures194

7.4.1 The role of the panel in trade—environment dispute resolution196

7.5 The interpretation of Article ⅩⅩ （g） through the DSU process198

7.6 The interpretation of Article ⅩⅩ （b） through the DSU process201

7.7 The chapeau of Article ⅩⅩ： tests for compliance205

7.7.1 Tests to determine compliance of a measure with the WTO under the chapeau of Article ⅩⅩ207

7.7.2 Environmental criticisms of the chapeau of Article ⅩⅩ tests217

7.8 Conclusion219

Conclusion221

Index231