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Chapter Ⅰ Introduction1

1. Trafficking in Human Beings - A Topical Issue1

2. Fundamentals About and Critique towards the Action against Trafficking in Human Beings8

3. Research Design and Structure of the Present Study15

3.1. Aim of the Study and Research Questions15

3.2. Structure of the Study17

Chapter Ⅱ Consent and Vulnerability in Prostitution and Trafficking for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation: Debates and Definitions19

1. Introduction19

2. Contradictory Positions on Prostitution21

2.1. Prostitution as a Form of Gender-Based Violence: The "Sexual Domination Position"21

2.2. Prostitution as Work: The "Sex Work Position"24

2.3. Legal Strategies to Tackle Prostitution and Their Impact on Human Trafficking29

2.3.1. Introduction29

2.3.2. Case Studies: Sweden, the Netherlands and Germany31

2.3.3. The Impact of the Political Choices for Addressing Human Trafficking37

2.4. Concluding Observations39

3. Developments in the International Law: From the Campaigns Against "White Slave Traffic" to the 1949 Convention and Beyond42

3.1. Introduction42

3.2. The Early International Instruments against White Slave Traffic44

3.3. The 1949 Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others48

3.3.1. Introduction48

3.3.2. The Essentials and Critique of the 1949 Convention52

3.4. Subsequent Developments of the International Law on Prostitution and Trafficking for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation56

3.5. Concluding Observations61

4. Prostitution and Trafficking for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation in the EU law63

4.1. Introduction63

4.2. The European Union and "the Common Sex Market"64

5. The Current International Definition of Trafficking in Human Beings and Its Relation to Prostitution66

5.1. The International Definition of Human Trafficking66

5.2. Trafficking in Human Beings and Its Relation to Prostitution69

5.3. Forceful Recruitment and Transportation or Coercive Circumstances?: Innocent Victims and Guilty Prostitutes72

6. Conclusions74

Chapter Ⅲ The International Legal Framework against Human Trafficking: From the Overemphasis of Law Enforcement to the Protection of the Victim's Human Rights77

1. Introduction77

2. The UN Organised Crime Convention and Its Protocols on Trafficking and Smuggling79

2.1. Introduction79

2.2. The Drafting History of the Parent Convention and Its Protocols on Trafficking and Smuggling82

2.2.1. The Parent Convention on Transnational Organised Crime82

2.2.2. The Protocols on Trafficking and Smuggling84

2.3. The Contents of the Parent Convention and its Protocols on Trafficking and Smuggling87

2.3.1. The Contents of the Parent Convention on Transnational Organised Crime87

2.3.2. Contents of the Trafficking Protocol89

2.3.3. Contents of the Smuggling Protocol93

2.4. The Dichotomy Between Trafficking and Smuggling: A Critical Analysis of the Protocols95

2.4.1. Differences Between Trafficking and Smuggling95

2.4.2. Similarities Between Trafficking and Smuggling98

2.5. Concluding Observations on the UN Convention and Its Protocols102

3. The Council of Europe Convention on the Action against Trafficking in Human Beings: Added Value for the Protection of Trafficked Persons' Human Rights?106

3.1. Introduction106

3.2. The Background and Drafting Process of the CoE Trafficking Convention109

3.3. Contents of the Council of Europe Convention on Trafficking114

3.3.1. The Convention as a Human Rights Instrument114

3.3.2. Provisions on Identification, Assistance and Protection of Trafficked Persons and the Prevention of Human Trafficking118

3.4. Concluding Observations on the Council of Europe Convention on Trafficking126

4. Comparison of the UN Trafficking Protocol and the CoE Trafficking Convention128

5. Other Relevant International Legal Instruments against Trafficking in Human Beings132

6. Conclusions151

Chapter Ⅳ Anti-Trafftcking Strategies and Activities in Finland: Current Achievements and Future Challenges155

1. Introduction155

2. The Legal Framework of Action against Trafficking in Human Beings157

2.1. Introduction157

2.2. The Current Situation of Prostitution, Pandering and Human Trafficking in Finland161

2.3. The Criminalisation of Trafficking and Other Amendments to the Penal Code167

2.3.1. Introduction: Historical Background167

2.3.2. The Novel Penal Provisions on Human Trafficking and Pandering171

2.3.3. Similarities and Differences Between Human Trafficking and Pandering175

2.4. Criminalisation of the Exploitation of a Person Subjected to Sex Trade179

2.4.1. Introduction179

2.4.2. The Legislative Process: From a General Criminalisation to a Limited Prohibition180

2.4.3. Enforcement of the Novel Penal Provision182

2.4.4. The Continuing Ideological Debates on the Nature of Prostitution and Its Potential Impacts on Victim Identification184

2.5. The Aliens Act: Trafficked Victims' Right to Reside in Finland186

2.5.1. Introduction: The Residence Permit Directive186

2.5.2. The Reflection Period189

2.5.3. The Residence Permit193

2.5.4. Concluding Observations197

2.6. The Act on the Integration of Immigrants and Reception of Asylum Seekers: The Official System of Victim Assistance200

2.7. The National Plans of Action and the National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings206

2.8. Conclusions on the Legislative Framework against Trafficking in Human Beings209

3. The Application and Interpretation of the Penal Provisions on Trafficking at the Finnish Courts of Law: The Distinction between "Innocent" and "Guilty" Victims of Sexual Exploitation213

3.1. Introduction213

3.2. Judgments on Trafficking in Human Beings for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation214

3.3. Implications of the Restrictive Application and Interpretation of Law220

3.4. Historical Developments in the Regulation of Prostitution221

3.4.1. Introduction221

3.4.2. The Regulation of Prostitution Before the 1990s222

3.4.3. The Situation of Prostitution, Pandering and Trafficking at the Turn of the Millennium and the Consequent Legal Amendments225

3.4.3.1. The Changes in the Situation in the Field of Foreign Prostitution225

3.4.3.2. Amendments to the Aliens Act and the Public Order Act232

3.4.4. Concluding Observations235

3.5. The Issue of Consent and "Voluntarily" Migrating Prostitutes236

3.5.1. Introduction236

3.5.2. "Voluntarily" Migrating Prostitutes and "Oral Employment Contracts"237

3.5.3. The Liberal Notion of Free Will240

3.5.4. Concluding Observations241

3.6 Trafficking for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation as a Form of Gender-Based Violence242

3.6.1. Introduction242

3.6.2. Trafficking in Human Beings, Rape and "Behavioural Responsibility"244

3.6.3. The Restricted Sexual Self-Determination / Sexual Autonomy of Prostitutes246

3.6.4. Concluding Observations249

3.7. The Discriminatory Effects of the Finnish Anti-Trafficking Strategies and Activities250

3.8. Seeking for an Alternative: Lack of Consent, Coercive Circumstances, Vulnerability, and Unequal Power Relations255

3.8.1. Introduction255

3.8.2. The Lack of Consent, not Force as a Constituent Element of Human Trafficking256

3.8.3. Coercive Circumstances and the Protection of Vulnerability and Bodily Integrity264

3.8.3.1. Introduction264

3.8.3.2. Coercive Circumstances and Financial Control in Prostitution265

3.8.3.3. Vulnerability, Bodily Integrity and Human Dignity270

3.8.4. A Way Forward: A Model of Interpretation to Deconstruct the False Distinction between "Innocent" and "Guilty" Victims of Sexual Exploitation275

4. Conclusions281

Chapter Ⅴ Conclusions and Recommendations287

1. Introductory Remarks: "Invisible" Victims287

2. Deserving Victims and Conditional Assistance289

3. The Ambiguous Definition of Human Trafficking and the Restrictive Application and Interpretation of Criminal Law Provisions295

4. Final Remarks301

Bibliography303

Index353