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Introduction1

Ⅰ. Background Elements4

Ⅱ. The Book8

Chapter 1 Rights to AnGR9

Ⅰ. Sovereignty Rights9

Ⅱ. Tangible 'Classical' Property10

Ⅲ. Intangible 'Intellectual' Property (Minus Patents)10

A. Trademarks12

B. Geographical Indications12

C. Copyright15

D. Undisclosed Information (Trade Secrets)16

Ⅳ. The Patent System19

A. Patentability20

B. Scope of Patent (Rights)22

C. Patents and Biotechnology24

1. Patentability25

2. Scope of Patent (Rights)26

3. Various Criticisms28

4. Biopiracy32

D. Patents and AnGR34

Chapter 2 Patenting AnGR: A Comparison between the United States,　Europe and Canada41

Ⅰ. The United States42

A. 1873-1980: Historical Background45

B. 1980: Anything under the Sun that Is Made by Man Is Patentable48

1. Product of Nature?48

2. Living Matter?49

3. Anything under the Sun?50

4. Dissenting Justices Brennan, White, Marshall and Powell51

C. 1987: Ex Parte Allen52

D. 1987: Notice on Animal Patentability53

E. 1990: Amgen v. Chugai Pharmaceutical54

F. 1991: Animal Legal Defense Fund (Et al.) v. Quigg54

G. 2001: J.E.M. v. Pioneer Hi-Bred55

H. 2004-2010: Monsanto v. X & Y56

I. 2011: The Situation Today58

Ⅱ. Europe60

A. The Biotechnology Directive62

B. The Exclusion of Animal Varieties64

1. Rationale65

2. Taxonomical Rank of 'Variety': Definitions and Interpretations68

a. Biological Definition69

b. 'Breeds'70

c. EPO Definition71

d. EPO Definition: (Analogy to) Plant Varieties73

e. EPO Definition: Individually Claimed Varieties versus Inventions Which Technical Feasibility Is Confined to a Particular Variety79

f. EPO Definition: The Role of Process Patents81

Ⅰ. The Directly Derived Products of a Patentable Process81

Ⅱ. Products of a Microbiological Process82

Ⅲ. Products of Genetic Engineering83

C. Summary83

Ⅲ. Canada84

A. Before 'Harvard College'86

B. 2002: Harvard College89

C. 2004: Monsanto v. Schmeiser92

D. Today97

Ⅳ. Conclusion100

Chapter 3 Patenting AnGR: Impact on Ownership Traditions in Agriculture103

Ⅰ. Property over (Agricultural) Animals104

A. Traditional, Individual Ownership106

B. Community Ownership107

C. Contractual Limitations and Herd-Books109

1. Contractual Limitations109

2. Herd-Books111

Ⅱ. The Impact of Patents114

A. The Patentability of Essentially Biotechnological Processes115

1. 1988-1998: Essentially Biological = Based upon the Essence of Invention and the Totality of Human Intervention118

2. Never in Place: Essentially Biological = If At Least One Step Is Biological119

3. 1998-2010: Essentially Biological = If At Least One Step Is Not Biological119

4. 2010-Today: Essentially Biological = Even When a Step of a Technical Nature Is Included, I.( This Only Serves to Enable or Assist the Performance of the Crossing Steps121

5. The Effect of, and Need for, This Distinction?125

B. Extension over Progeny126

1. The Theory of Exhaustion129

2. Product Patents131

3. Process Patents133

4. Farmers' Privileges136

Ⅲ. Conclusion138

Chapter 4 Patenting AnGR: Issues of Animal Welfare141

Ⅰ. Animal Welfare in Law141

A. On Animal Dignity and Legal Welfarism142

B. Animal Welfare Regulations in Practice146

1. The Laws146

2. Differentiations148

a. Differentiations on the Basis of the Aim of the Regulation148

b. Differentiations amongst Species and Purpose148

Ⅱ. Coherence or Splendid Isolation? Welfare and Patent Law150

A. Existing Options: Ordre Pubic and Morality Exclusions151

1. Legal Definition of 'Morality' and 'Ordre Public'152

a. Morality153

b. Ordre Public153

2. What Is Being Assessed?155

3. Practical Application156

a. United States and Canada156

b. Europe159

Ⅰ. Morality160

Ⅱ. Ordre Public170

B. A Necessity for Exclusions or Differentiations(?)172

Ⅲ. Conclusion173

Chapter 5 AnGR, Intellectual Property and Biodiversity: The Positive Angle175

Ⅰ. The Market Failure in Animal Biodiversity179

Ⅱ. Conservation and the Law182

Ⅲ. Conservation and the Market: The Question of (Intellectual Property) Rights188

A. Geographical Indications: Trademarks189

B. Patents191

C. Sui Generis IP Systems for Animal Breeds193

1. The International Legal Framework195

2. Sui Generis Systems: Examples196

3. A Sui Generis System for AnGR Innovation: Details201

a. Analogies to Plants and Their Systems?201

b. The Questions of Design203

Ⅳ. Conclusion207

Chapter 6 Patenting AnGR Animal Genetic Resources and International Regulation209

Ⅰ. International Approaches and Debates Today210

A. Article 27(3) TRIPs210

1. Negotiations: Past and Present210

2. Definitions, Scope Extensions and Idiosyncrasies212

B. TRIPs+ Provisions216

C. The 'Ceilings' Debate218

D. The Theory of Graduation220

Ⅱ. International Approaches and Debates Tomorrow(?)221

A. Normative Frameworks224

1. The Theory of Multi-layered Governance224

2. The Theory of Cooperative Sovereignty225

3. The Theory of Regulatory Cosmopolitanism226

B. Underlying Elements227

1. Innovation228

2. Economic Development230

3. Equal Conditions to Trade: The Level Playing Field232

4. Human Rights234

5. Animal Welfare238

6. The Conservation of AnGR239

C. The Choice of Forum240

D. The Practical Side241

Ⅲ. Conclusion242

Concluding Remarks245

Glossary251

Bibliography255

Table of Cases277

Table of Legislation285

Index293