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Chapter 1 Introduction1

1.1 Middle constructions in languages1

1.2 The middle construction and middle semantics3

1.3 Studies on middles:past and present7

1.4 Methodology and procedures12

1.5 Goals of this study13

1.6 A sketch map of the thesis14

Chapter 2 Characteristics of Middles in West-Germanic Languages2.1 Semantic classification of middles17

2.2 The syntactic features of middles in West-Germanic languages20

2.2.1 Passive-participant subject and active morphology20

2.2.2 Tense and aspect21

2.2.3 Adverbial22

2.3 Semantic characteristics of middles in West-Germanic languages23

2.3.1 Agent irrelevance and the implicit argument24

2.3.2 Time-irrelevance and genericity,non-eventiveness27

2.3.3 Passive participant and responsibility of subject,causative modality30

2.4 Selectional restrictions on verbs and adverbials in middles32

2.4.1 Middable verbs32

2.4.2 Selectional restriction on adverbial33

2.5 Summary35

Chapter 3 The Realization of Middle Semantics in Chinese3.1 Chinese qilai construction37

3.2 A preliminary syntactic analysis of the qilai construction38

3.2.1 Chinese qilai construction is not an elliptical structure38

3.2.2 The structural parsing of qilai construction41

3.2.3 Chinese qilai construction is active in morphology43

3.3 Middle voice verbs and the middle construction44

3.4 The realization of middle semantics in the qilai construction46

3.4.1 The implicit argument and the irrelevance of agent46

3.4.2 The realization of non-eventiveness48

3.4.3 Modality and responsibility of subject52

3.4.4 Genericity54

3.4.5 Adverb and adverbial effect55

3.5 Restrictions on qilai construction57

3.6 The status and function of qilai59

3.7 Other issues in middles61

3.7.1 对于／就……而言／来说and for-phrase61

3.7.2 自己and oneself in middles64

3.8 Summary66

Chapter 4 Atypical Middles in Chinese and West-Germanic languages4.1 Syntactic classification of middles67

4.2 Adjunct middles in West-Germanic languages69

4.2.1 What is adjunct?69

4.2.2 The features of adjunct middles70

4.3 Adjunct middles in Chinese75

4.3.1 Are there adjunct middles in Chinese?75

4.3.2 The syntactic and semantic features77

4.3.3 Types of adjuncts in the adjunct middles77

4.4 The difference between typical and adjunct middles80

4.5 Adjunct middles in Topic-prominent Chinese82

4.6 Adjunct middles and instrument-subject clauses83

4.7 Diverse semantic relations between Chinese verbs and their objects86

4.8 Impersonal middles88

4.9 Summary91

Chapter 5 Middles and Tough Constructions92

5.1 Two hot topics in the past 25 years92

5.2 Chinese nanyi construction and English tough construction93

5.3 Asymmetry between TC and MC97

5.4 A systematic comparison between TC and facility MC99

5.4.1 The irrelevance of agent and the implicit argument99

5.4.2 Genericity and non-eventiveness102

5.4.3 Modality and responsibility of subject103

5.4.4 Tough predicates and middle adverb104

5.4.5 Aspectual classes of verb and Affectedness constraint107

5.4.6 The subject of TCs and MCs110

5.4.7 Semantic Compatibility111

5.5 Summary114

Chapter 6 Middles and Syntactically Similar Constructions6.1 Introduction115

6.2 English middles and ergatives115

6.3 English middles and intransitive actives121

6.4 Middles and transitive actives123

6.5 The meaning of the construction124

6.6 Other types of qilai constructions125

6.7 Other types of nanyi constructions128

6.8 Other types of reflexive constructions in German129

6.9 Summary131

Chapter 7 The Two MF Approaches and Their Problems7.1 The movement and non-movement approaches to MF133

7.2 The main arguments of the Movement Approach135

7.3 The dilemma for the Movement Approach to MF136

7.3.1 Not every middle construction has its active counterpart137

7.3.2 Not every active sentence has middle counterpart139

7.3.3 Middles often differ from their active paraphrases in meaning140

7.3.4 Restrictions on middle formation are not accounted for141

7.3.5 Atypical middles141

7.3.6 Impersonal middles145

7.4 Major arguments of the lexical approach145

7.5 Problems of the lexical approach147

7.6 Summary148

Chapter 8 A Cognitive Approach to Middle Construction8.1 The need of a new account151

8.2 Theoretical framework152

8.3 The middle profile160

8.4 The construction of meaning and the meaning of construction170

8.5 Middle construction and virtual reality172

8.6 Events and properties176

8.7 Chinese qilai constructions176

8.8 Impersonal middles and the reflexive sich in German178

8.9 Summary182

Chapter 9 Conditions on Middle Formation183

9.1 The restriction on MF is a notorious question183

9.2 The condition on MF184

9.2.1 Aspectuality Condition186

9.2.2 Responsibility Condition189

9.2.3 The interpretive power of the two conditions196

9.3 Other factor saffecting the acceptability of middles202

9.3.1 Semantic compatibility202

9.3.2 Pragmatic factors203

9.3.3 Asymmetry between ease and difficulty204

9.3.4 Ambiguity between active and middle interpretations206

9.4 Productivity of middles208

9.5 The selection restrictions on MF210

9.6 Summary212

Chapter 10 Integrating the Features of Middles10.1 Two central properties of middles213

10.2 Integrating IA,AM and AE214

10.3 Integrating tense,genericity and non-eventiveness218

10.4 Summary227

Chapter 11 Conclusion229

11.1 Major findings of this study229

11.2 Implications of this study234

11.3 Limitations of this study235

11.4 Suggestions for further research236

References238

Author Index256

Subject Index259